WRITING IV: LITERATURE REVIEW

Task: Learn this material to improve writing the literature review of your study. The assessment to your writing for mid test will be based on some aspects elaborated here. (Deadline for writing literature review will be posted in the next post). Your task for now is to write comments of your brief understanding of this material at maximum 50 words.

A literature review:
- a body of text that aims to review the critical points of current knowledge on a particular topic.
- a description of the literature relevant to a particular field or topic.

What is the Purpose of a Literature Review?
To demonstrate your scholarly ability to identify relevant information and to outline existing knowledge.
To identify the 'gap' in the research that your study is attempting to address, positioning your work in the context of previous research and creating a 'research space' for your work.
To evaluate and synthesize the information in line with the concepts that you have set yourself for the research.
To produce a rationale or justification for your study.

RELATED LITERATURE:
To assure the readers that you are familiar with the important research that has been carried out in your area.
 To establish your study as one link in a chain of research that is developing and enlarging knowledge in your field.

A literature review must have an introduction, body, and conclusion.

The introduction should include:
the nature of the topic under discussion (the topic of your thesis)
the parameters of the topic (what does it include and exclude)?
the basis for your selection of the literature
Introduction Structure:
General statement about the subject
Beginning to focus onto the topic
Becoming more specific
Specific thesis statement

The body paragraphs could include relevant paragraphs on:
 - historical background, including classic texts;
- current mainstream versus alternative theoretical or ideological viewpoints, including differing theoretical assumptions, differing political outlooks, and other conflicts;
 -possible approaches to the subject (empirical, philosophical, historical, postmodernist, etc);
- definitions in use;
- current research studies;
- current discoveries about the topic;
- principal questions that are being asked;
- general conclusions that are being drawn;
- methodologies and methods in use; … and so on.

The conclusion should include:
- A summary of major agreements and disagreements in the literature
- A summary of general conclusions that are being drawn.
- A summary of where your thesis sits in the literature (Remember! Your thesis could
become one of the future texts on the subject—how will later research students describe
your thesis in their literature reviews?)

The Purpose of a Conclusion
The purpose of a conclusion is to tie together, or integrate the various issues, research, etc., covered in the body of the paper, and to make comments upon the meaning of all of it. This includes noting any implications resulting from your discussion of the topic, as well as recommendations, forecasting future trends, and the need for further research.

Structure
Link to previous paragraph: ‘In conclusion…’
Brief summary
Identify main reasons/causes/factors
Reinforce the thesis statement (see the introduction part)
Recommendations/speculation on future action
____________-


Some Possible Ways of Structuring a Literature Review

Chronological organisation
The discussion of the research /articles is ordered according to a historical or developmental context. If your review follows the chronological method, you could write about the materials according to when they were published.

Topical or thematic organisation
The research is divided into sections representing the categories or conceptual subjects for your topic. The discussion is organized into these categories or subjects. Thematic reviews of literature are organized around a topic or issue, rather than the progression of time. However, progression of time may still be an important factor in a thematic review.
Inverted pyramid organisation
The literature review begins with a discussion of the related literature from a broad perspective. It then deals with more and more specific or localised studies which focus increasingly on the specific question at hand.

Discussing and Evaluating the Literature

Critically examine the literature
The literature review needs to critically examine the texts that relate to your research question, rather than to just list what you have located. Therefore, you must link the literature to your research question, demonstrating how it supports or extends the topic or the existing knowledge in the area. You should also highlight the strengths, weaknesses and omissions of the literature, providing a critique of the research. Hence, the language used in a literature review is often evaluative and demonstrates your perspectives of the literature in relation to your question.

Make your 'voice' clear
Your 'voice', that is, your perspective, position or standpoint, should be clearly identifiable in the literature review, as in the thesis as a whole. However, in the literature review because you are writing about other people's work it is easy for your own 'voice' to be lost. The literature review then reads like a mixture of different tones and arguments. It is important that, firstly, your theoretical position is clearly and strongly stated and that your critical evaluations are an integral part of this. Secondly, it is important that your language indicates your own or other writers' attitudes to the question or issue.

__________ the literature review needs to relate to and explain your research question. Although there may seem to be hundreds of sources of information that appear pertinent, once you have your question you will be able to refine and narrow down the scope of your reading.
___

LANGUAGE CONVENTION
Citation Focus and Verb Tense

Beginning citation (simple present&present perfect)
AUTHOR PROMINENT
1. Nutrient restoration is a common phenomenon in forest trees (Kramer, 1979)
2. The factors that control the concentration of aluminum in seawater are poorly known (1)

WEAK AUTHOR PROMINENT
1. Several researchers have studied the relationship between classroom adjustment and mobility (Madsen, 1980; Biggs, 1983; Randall, 1985).
2. The psychology of annual plants has been studied by several authors (3, 7, 13).

GENERAL STATEMENT
1. Little research has been done on topic development in ESL students’ composition.

later citation (simple past)
AUTHOR PROMINENT
1. Allington (1983) found (showed/reported/noted/observed) that teachers allocated equal time to all groups.

Important Resources (Paraphrasing-writing transitions)

 

1.   Quoting, Paraphrasing, and Summarizing

2.   Writing Transition

 

Ad. 1. Quoting, Paraphrasing, and Summarizing

This resource was written by Purdue OWL.
Last full revision by Dana Lynn Driscoll.
Last edited by Dana Lynn Driscoll on September 10th 2006 at 11:49AM

Summary: This handout is intended to help you become more comfortable with the uses of and distinctions among quotations, paraphrases, and summaries. This handout compares and contrasts the three terms, gives some pointers, and includes a short excerpt that you can use to practice these skills.

Jump to listing of all of this resource's sections

Quoting, Paraphrasing, and Summarizing

This handout is intended to help you become more comfortable with the uses of and distinctions among quotations, paraphrases, and summaries. This handout compares and contrasts the three terms, gives some pointers, and includes a short excerpt that you can use to practice these skills.

What are the differences among quoting, paraphrasing, and summarizing?

These three ways of incorporating other writers' work into your own writing differ according to the closeness of your writing to the source writing.
Quotations must be identical to the original, using a narrow segment of the source. They must match the source document word for word and must be attributed to the original author.
Paraphrasing involves putting a passage from source material into your own words. A paraphrase must also be attributed to the original source. Paraphrased material is usually shorter than the original passage, taking a somewhat broader segment of the source and condensing it slightly.
Summarizing involves putting the main idea(s) into your own words, including only the main point(s). Once again, it is necessary to attribute summarized ideas to the original source. Summaries are significantly shorter than the original and take a broad overview of the source material.

Why use quotations, paraphrases, and summaries?

Quotations, paraphrases, and summaries serve many purposes. You might use them to . . .

• Provide support for claims or add credibility to your writing
• Refer to work that leads up to the work you are now doing
• Give examples of several points of view on a subject
• Call attention to a position that you wish to agree or disagree with
• Highlight a particularly striking phrase, sentence, or passage by quoting the original
• Distance yourself from the original by quoting it in order to cue readers that the words are not your own
• Expand the breadth or depth of your writing

Writers frequently intertwine summaries, paraphrases, and quotations. As part of a summary of an article, a chapter, or a book, a writer might include paraphrases of various key points blended with quotations of striking or suggestive phrases as in the following example:

In his famous and influential work On the Interpretation of Dreams, Sigmund Freud argues that dreams are the "royal road to the unconscious" (page #), expressing in coded imagery the dreamer's unfulfilled wishes through a process known as the "dream work" (page #). According to Freud, actual but unacceptable desires are censored internally and subjected to coding through layers of condensation and displacement before emerging in a kind of rebus puzzle in the dream itself (page #s).

How to use quotations, paraphrases, and summaries

Practice summarizing the following essay, using paraphrases and quotations as you go. It might be helpful to follow these steps:

• Read the entire text, noting the key points and main ideas.
• Summarize in your own words what the single main idea of the essay is.
• Paraphrase important supporting points that come up in the essay.
• Consider any words, phrases, or brief passages that you believe should be quoted directly.

There are several ways to integrate quotations into your text. Often, a short quotation works well when integrated into a sentence. Longer quotations can stand alone. Remember that quoting should be done only sparingly; be sure that you have a good reason to include a direct quotation when you decide to do so. You'll find guidelines for citing sources and punctuating citations at our documentation guide pages.
All Sections in Quoting, Paraphrasing, and Summarizing:

1. Quoting, Paraphrasing, and Summarizing
2. Paraphrase: Write it in Your Own Words
3. Sample essay for Summarizing, Paraphrasing, and Quoting

Legal Information

Copyright ©1995-2008 by The Writing Lab & The OWL at Purdue and Purdue University. All rights reserved. This material may not be published, reproduced, broadcast, rewritten, or redistributed without permission. Use of this site constitutes acceptance of our terms and conditions of fair use.
The Writing Lab & OWL at Purdue University care about accessiblity and content quality. Contact Dana Driscoll to share your comments and concerns. The OWL at Purdue now conforms to W3C.org-validated XHTML 1.0 Strict and CSS 2.0 standards. Additionally, the site passes the Cynthia Says test for ADA Section 508 compliance. We also recommend updating your Web browser to the very latest version available (the OWL at Purdue recommends the free, open-source Mozilla Firefox). Please report any technical problems you encounter.

Copyright ©1995-2008 by The Writing Lab & The OWL at Purdue and Purdue University. All rights reserved. This material may not be published, reproduced, broadcast, rewritten, or redistributed without permission. Use of this site constitutes acceptance of our terms and conditions of fair use. Please report any technical problems you encounter.

This resource was written by Purdue OWL.
Last full revision by Ryan Weber.
Last edited by Karl Stolley on August 20th 2006 at 8:24PM

Ad.2. Writing Transitions

Good transitions can connect paragraphs and turn disconnected writing into a unified whole. Instead of treating paragraphs as separate ideas, transitions can help readers understand how paragraphs work together, reference one another, and build to a larger point. The key to producing good transitions is highlighting connections between corresponding paragraphs. By referencing in one paragraph the relevant material from previous ones, writers can develop important points for their readers.
It is a good idea to continue one paragraph where another leaves off (instances where this is especially challenging may suggest that the paragraphs don't belong together at all.) Picking up key phrases from the previous paragraph and highlighting them in the next can create an obvious progression for readers. Many times, it only takes a few words to draw these connections. Instead of writing transitions that could connect any paragraph to any other paragraph, write a transition that could only connect one specific paragraph to another specific paragraph.

Example: Overall, Management Systems International has logged increased sales in every sector, leading to a significant rise in third-quarter profits.

Another important thing to note is that the corporation had expanded its international influence.

Revision: Overall, Management Systems International has logged increased sales in every sector, leading to a significant rise in third-quarter profits.

These impressive profits are largely due to the corporation's expanded international influence.

Example: Fearing for the loss of Danish lands, Christian IV signed the Treaty of Lubeck, effectively ending the Danish phase of the 30 Years War.

But then something else significant happened. The Swedish intervention began.

Revision: Fearing for the loss of more Danish lands, Christian IV signed the Treaty of Lubeck, effectively ending the Danish phase of the 30 Years War.

Shortly after Danish forces withdrew, the Swedish intervention began.

Example: Amy Tan became a famous author after her novel, The Joy Luck Club, skyrocketed up the bestseller list.

There are other things to note about Tan as well. Amy Tan also participates in the satirical garage band the Rock Bottom Remainders with Stephen King and Dave Barry.

Revision: Amy Tan became a famous author after her novel, The Joy Luck Club, skyrocketed up the bestseller list.

Though her fiction is well known, her work with the satirical garage band the Rock Bottom Remainders receives far less publicity.

2.1 Transitional Devices

Transitional devices are like bridges between parts of your paper. They are cues that help the reader to interpret ideas a paper develops. Transitional devices are words or phrases that help carry a thought from one sentence to another, from one idea to another, or from one paragraph to another. And finally, transitional devices link sentences and paragraphs together smoothly so that there are no abrupt jumps or breaks between ideas.
There are several types of transitional devices, and each category leads readers to make certain connections or assumptions. Some lead readers forward and imply the building of an idea or thought, while others make readers compare ideas or draw conclusions from the preceding thoughts.
Here is a list of some common transitional devices that can be used to cue readers in a given way.

To Add:

and, again, and then, besides, equally important, finally, further, furthermore, nor, too, next, lastly, what's more, moreover, in addition, first (second, etc.)

To Compare:

whereas, but, yet, on the other hand, however, nevertheless, on the contrary, by comparison, where, compared to, up against, balanced against, vis a vis, but, although, conversely, meanwhile, after all, in contrast, although this may be true

To Prove:

because, for, since, for the same reason, obviously, evidently, furthermore, moreover, besides, indeed, in fact, in addition, in any case, that is

To Show Exception:

yet, still, however, nevertheless, in spite of, despite, of course, once in a while, sometimes

To Show Time:

immediately, thereafter, soon, after a few hours, finally, then, later, previously, formerly, first (second, etc.), next, and then

To Repeat:

in brief, as I have said, as I have noted, as has been noted

To Emphasize:

definitely, extremely, obviously, in fact, indeed, in any case, absolutely, positively, naturally, surprisingly, always, forever, perennially, eternally, never, emphatically, unquestionably, without a doubt, certainly, undeniably, without reservation

To Show Sequence:

first, second, third, and so forth. A, B, C, and so forth. next, then, following this, at this time, now, at this point, after, afterward, subsequently, finally, consequently, previously, before this, simultaneously, concurrently, thus, therefore, hence, next, and then, soon

To Give an Example:

for example, for instance, in this case, in another case, on this occasion, in this situation, take the case of, to demonstrate, to illustrate, as an illustration, to illustrate

To Summarize or Conclude:

in brief, on the whole, summing up, to conclude, in conclusion, as I have shown, as I have said, hence, therefore, accordingly, thus, as a result, consequently, on the whole

 

2.2 Sequence of Tenses

Strictly speaking, in English, only two tenses are marked in the verb alone, present (as in "he sings") and past (as in "he sang"). Other English language tenses, as many as thirty of them, are marked by other words called auxiliaries. Understanding the six basic tenses allows one to re-create much of the reality of time in his writing. The six are
Simple Present: They walk
Present Perfect: They have walked
Simple Past: They walked
Past Perfect: They had walked
Future: They will walk
Future Perfect: They will have walked
Problems in sequencing tenses usually occur with the perfect tenses, all of which are formed by adding an auxiliary or auxiliaries to the past participle, the third principal part.

ring, rang, rung

walk, walked, walked

The most common auxiliaries are forms of "be," "can," "do," "may," "must," "ought," "shall," "will," "has," "have," "had," and they are the forms we shall use in this most basic discussion.

Present Perfect

The present perfect consists of a past participle (the third principal part) with "has" or "have." It designates action which began in the past but which continues into the present or the effect of which still continues.
1. Betty taught for ten years. (simple past)
2. Betty has taught for ten years. (present perfect)
The implication in (1) is that Betty has retired; in (2), that she is still teaching.
1. John did his homework. He can go to the movies.
2. If John has done his homework, he can go to the movies.
Infinitives, too, have perfect tense forms when combined with "have," and sometimes problems arise when infinitives are used with verbs such as "hope," "plan," "expect," and "intend," all of which usually point to the future (I wanted to go to the movie. Janet meant to see the doctor.) The perfect tense sets up a sequence by marking the action which began and usually was completed before the action in the main verb.
1. I am happy to have participated in this campaign!
2. John had hoped to have won the trophy.
Thus the action of the main verb points back in time; the action of the perfect infinitive has been completed.
The past perfect tense designates action in the past just as simple past does, but the action of the past perfect is action completed in the past before another action.
1. John raised vegetables and later sold them. (past)
2. John sold vegetables that he had raised. (past perfect)
The vegetables were raised before they were sold.
1. Renee washed the car when George arrived (simple past)
2. Renee had washed the car when George arrived. (past perfect)
In (1), she waited until George arrived and then washed the car. In (2), she had already finished washing the car by the time he arrived.
In sentences expressing condition and result, the past perfect tense is used in the part that states the condition.
1. If I had done my exercises, I would have passed the test.
2. I think George would have been elected if he hadn't sounded so pompous.

Future Perfect Tense

The future perfect tense designates action that will have been completed at a specified time in the future.
1. Saturday I will finish my housework. (simple future)
2. By Saturday noon, I will have finished my housework. (future perfect)

Review

1. Judy saved thirty dollars. (past)
2. Judy will save thirty dollars. (future)
3. Judy has saved thirty dollars. (present perfect)
4. Judy had saved thirty dollars by the end of last month. (past perfect)
5. Judy will have saved thirty dollars by the end of this month. (future perfect)
Notice: There can be only one "would have" action group in a sentence.

2.3 Dangling Modifiers and How To Correct Them

A dangling modifier is a word or phrase that modifies a word not clearly stated in the sentence. A modifier describes, clarifies, or gives more detail about a concept.

Having finished the assignment, Jill turned on the TV.

"Having finished" states an action but does not name the doer of that action. In English sentences, the doer must be the subject of the main clause that follows. In this sentence, it is Jill. She seems logically to be the one doing the action ("having finished"), and this sentence therefore does not have a dangling modifier.
The following sentence has an incorrect usage:

Having finished the assignment, the TV was turned on.

"Having finished" is a participle expressing action, but the doer is not the TV set (the subject of the main clause): TV sets don't finish assignments. Since the doer of the action expressed in the participle has not been clearly stated, the participial phrase is said to be a dangling modifier.

Strategies for revising dangling modifiers:

1. Name the appropriate or logical doer of the action as the subject of the main clause:

Having arrived late for practice, a written excuse was needed.

Who arrived late? This sentence says that the written excuse arrived late. To revise, decide who actually arrived late. The possible revision might look like this:

Having arrived late for practice, the team captain needed a written excuse.

The main clause now names the person (the captain) who did the action in the modifying phrase (arrived late).
2. Change the phrase that dangles into a complete introductory clause by naming the doer of the action in that clause:

Without knowing his name, it was difficult to introduce him.

Who didn't know his name? This sentence says that "it" didn't know his name. To revise, decide who was trying to introduce him. The revision might look something like this:

Because Maria did not know his name, it was difficult to introduce him.

The phrase is now a complete introductory clause; it does not modify any other part of the sentence, so is not considered "dangling."
3. Combine the phrase and main clause into one:

To improve his results, the experiment was done again.

Who wanted to improve results? This sentence says that the experiment was trying to improve its own results. To revise, combine the phrase and the main clause into one sentence. The revision might look something like this:

He improved his results by doing the experiment again.

More examples of dangling modifiers and their revisions:

Incorrect: After reading the original study, the article remains unconvincing.
Revised: After reading the original study, I find the article unconvincing.
Incorrect: Relieved of your responsibilities at your job, your home should be a place to relax.
Revised: Relieved of your responsibilities at your job, you should be able to relax at home.
Incorrect: The experiment was a failure, not having studied the lab manual carefully.
Revised: They failed the experiment, not having studied the lab manual carefully.

Legal Information

Copyright ©1995-2008 by The Writing Lab & The OWL at Purdue and Purdue University. All rights reserved. This material may not be published, reproduced, broadcast, rewritten, or redistributed without permission. Use of this site constitutes acceptance of our terms and conditions of fair use.
The Writing Lab & OWL at Purdue University care about accessiblity and content quality. Contact Dana Driscoll to share your comments and concerns. The OWL at Purdue now conforms to W3C.org-validated XHTML 1.0 Strict and CSS 2.0 standards. Additionally, the site passes the Cynthia Says test for ADA Section 508 compliance. We also recommend updating your Web browser to the very latest version available (the OWL at Purdue recommends the free, open-source Mozilla Firefox). Please report any technical problems you encounter.

2.4 Appositives

An appositive is a noun or pronoun — often with modifiers — set beside another noun or pronoun to explain or identify it. Here are some examples of appositives (the noun or pronoun will be in blue, the appositive will be in red).

Your friend Bill is in trouble.

My brother's car, a sporty red convertible with bucket seats, is the envy of my friends.

The chief surgeon, an expert in organ-transplant procedures, took her nephew on a hospital tour.

An appositive phrase usually follows the word it explains or identifies, but it may also precede it.

A bold innovator, Wassily Kadinsky is known for his colorful abstract paintings.

The first state to ratify the U. S. Constitution, Delaware is rich in history.

A beautiful collie, Skip was my favorite dog.

Punctuation of appositives

In some cases, the noun being explained is too general without the appositive; the information is essential to the meaning of the sentence. When this is the case, do not place commas around the appositive; just leave it alone. If the sentence would be clear and complete without the appositive, then commas are necessary; place one before and one after the appositive.
Here are some examples.

The popular US president John Kennedy was known for his eloquent and inspirational speeches.

Here we do not put commas around the appositive, because it is essential information. Without the appositive, the sentence would be, "The popular US president was known for his eloquent and inspirational speeches." We wouldn't know which president was being referred to.

John Kennedy, the popular US president, was known for his eloquent and inspirational speeches.

Here we put commas around the appositive because it is not essential information. Without the appositive, the sentence would be, "John Kennedy was known for his eloquent and inspirational speeches." We still know who the subject of the sentence is without the appositive.

John Kennedy the popular US president was quite different from John Kennedy the unfaithful husband.

Here we do not put commas around either appositive because they are both essential to understanding the sentence. Without the appositives, the sentence would just be John Kennedy was quite different from John Kennedy. We wouldn't know what qualities of John Kennedy were being referred to without the appositive.

Legal Information

Copyright ©1995-2008 by The Writing Lab & The OWL at Purdue and Purdue University. All rights reserved. This material may not be published, reproduced, broadcast, rewritten, or redistributed without permission. Use of this site constitutes acceptance of our terms and conditions of fair use.
The Writing Lab & OWL at Purdue University care about accessiblity and content quality. Contact Dana Driscoll to share your comments and concerns. The OWL at Purdue now conforms to W3C.org-validated XHTML 1.0 Strict and CSS 2.0 standards. Additionally, the site passes the Cynthia Says test for ADA Section 508 compliance. We also recommend updating your Web browser to the very latest version available (the OWL at Purdue recommends the free, open-source Mozilla Firefox). Please report any technical problems you encounter.

2.5 Identifying Independent and Dependent Clauses

When you want to use commas and semicolons in sentences and when you are concerned about whether a sentence is or is not a fragment, a good way to start is to be able to recognize dependent and independent clauses. The definitions offered here will help you with this.
Independent Clause
An independent clause is a group of words that contains a subject and verb and expresses a complete thought. An independent clause is a sentence.

Jim studied in the Sweet Shop for his chemistry quiz.

Dependent Clause
A dependent clause is a group of words that contains a subject and verb but does not express a complete thought. A dependent clause cannot be a sentence. Often a dependent clause is marked by a dependent marker word.

When Jim studied in the Sweet Shop for his chemistry quiz . . . (What happened when he studied? The thought is incomplete.)

Dependent Marker Word
A dependent marker word is a word added to the beginning of an independent clause that makes it into a dependent clause.

When Jim studied in the Sweet Shop for his chemistry quiz, it was very noisy.

Some common dependent markers are: after, although, as, as if, because, before, even if, even though, if, in order to, since, though, unless, until, whatever, when, whenever, whether, and while.
Connecting dependent and independent clauses
There are two types of words that can be used as connectors at the beginning of an independent clause: coordinating conjunctions and independent marker words.
1. Coordinating Conjunction
The seven coordinating conjunctions used as connecting words at the beginning of an independent clause are and, but, for, or, nor, so, and yet. When the second independent clause in a sentence begins with a coordinating conjunction, a comma is needed before the coordinating conjunction:

Jim studied in the Sweet Shop for his chemistry quiz, but it was hard to concentrate because of the noise.

2. Independent Marker Word
An independent marker word is a connecting word used at the beginning of an independent clause. These words can always begin a sentence that can stand alone. When the second independent clause in a sentence has an independent marker word, a semicolon is needed before the independent marker word.

Jim studied in the Sweet Shop for his chemistry quiz; however, it was hard to concentrate because of the noise.

Some common independent markers are: also, consequently, furthermore, however, moreover, nevertheless, and therefore.

Some Common Errors to Avoid

Comma Splices
A comma splice is the use of a comma between two independent clauses. You can usually fix the error by changing the comma to a period and therefore making the two clauses into two separate sentences, by changing the comma to a semicolon, or by making one clause dependent by inserting a dependent marker word in front of it.

Incorrect: I like this class, it is very interesting.

• Correct: I like this class. It is very interesting.
• (or) I like this class; it is very interesting.
• (or) I like this class, and it is very interesting.
• (or) I like this class because it is very interesting.
• (or) Because it is very interesting, I like this class.

Fused Sentences
Fused sentences happen when there are two independent clauses not separated by any form of punctuation. This error is also known as a run-on sentence. The error can sometimes be corrected by adding a period, semicolon, or colon to separate the two sentences.

Incorrect: My professor is intelligent I've learned a lot from her.

• Correct: My professor is intelligent. I've learned a lot from her.
• (or) My professor is intelligent; I've learned a lot from her.
• (or) My professor is intelligent, and I've learned a lot from her.
• (or) My professor is intelligent; moreover, I've learned a lot from her.

Sentence Fragments
Sentence fragments happen by treating a dependent clause or other incomplete thought as a complete sentence. You can usually fix this error by combining it with another sentence to make a complete thought or by removing the dependent marker.

Incorrect: Because I forgot the exam was today.

• Correct: Because I forgot the exam was today, I didn't study.
• (or) I forgot the exam was today.

2.6 Run-ons - Comma Splices - Fused Sentences

Run-ons, comma splices, and fused sentences are all names given to compound sentences that are not punctuated correctly. The best way to avoid such errors is to punctuate compound sentences correctly by using one or the other of these rules.
1. Join the two independent clauses with one of the coordinating conjunctions (and, but, for, or, nor, so, yet), and use a comma before the connecting word.
_________________________, and _________________________.

He enjoys walking through the country, and he often goes backpacking on his vacations.

2. When you do not have a connecting word (or when you use a connecting word other than and, but, for, or nor, so, or yet between the two independent clauses) use a semicolon (;).

2.7 Count and Noncount Nouns: Basic Rules

Adjectives with Countable and Uncountable Nouns

The Basic Rules: Count and Noncount Nouns

A count noun is one that can be expressed in plural form, usually with an "s." For example, "cat—cats," "season—seasons," "student—students."
A noncount noun is one that usually cannot be expressed in a plural form. For example, "milk," "water," "air," "money," "food." Usually, you can't say, "He had many moneys."

Count and Noncount Nouns with Adjectives

Most of the time, this doesn't matter with adjectives. For example, you can say, "The cat was gray" or "The air was gray." However, the difference between a countable and uncountable noun does matter with certain adjectives, such as "some/any," "much/many," and "little/few."

Some/Any: Some and any countable and uncountable nouns.

• "There is some water on the floor."
• "There are some Mexicans here."
• "Do you have any food?"
• "Do you have any apples?"

Much/Many: Much modifies only uncountable nouns. Many modifies only countable nouns.

• "We don't have much time to get this done."
• "Many Americans travel to Europe."

Little/Few: Little modifies only uncountable nouns.

• "He had little food in the house."
• "The doctor had little time to think in the emergency room."

Few modifies only countable nouns.

• "There are few doctors in town."
• "Few students like exams."

Other basic rules

A lot of/lots of:A lot of/lots of are informal substitutes for much and many. They are used with uncountable nouns when they mean much and with countable nouns when they mean many.

• "They have lots of (much) money in the bank."
• "A lot of (many) Americans travel to Europe."
• "We got lots of (many) mosquitoes last summer."
• "We got lots of (much) rain last summer."

A little bit of:A little bit of is informal and always precedes an uncountable noun.

• "There is a little bit of pepper in the soup."
• "There is a little bit of snow on the ground."

Enough: Enough modifies both countable and uncountable nouns.

• "There is enough money to buy a car."
• "I have enough books to read."

Plenty of: Plenty of modifies both countable and uncountable nouns.

• "They have plenty of money in the bank."
• "There are plenty of millionaires in Switzerland."

No: No modifies both countable and uncountable nouns.

• "There is no time to finish now."
• "There are no squirrels in the park."

2.8 Count and Non-Count Nouns (with Plurals, Articles, and Quantity Words)

Section 1: Definition of Count and Noncount nouns

Count or Noncount?

The main difference between count and noncount nouns is whether you can count the things they refer to or not.
Count nouns refer to things that exist as separate and distinct individual units. They usually refer to what can be perceived by the senses.

Examples:

• table
• finger
• bottle
• chair
• remark
• award
• word
• girl
• candidate

Example sentences:

I stepped in a puddle. (How many puddles did you step in? Just one.)

I drank a glass of milk. (Glasses of milk can be counted)

I saw an apple tree. (Apple trees can be counted)

Noncount nouns refer to things that can't be counted because they are thought of as wholes that can't be cut into parts. They often refer to abstractions and occasionally have a collective meaning (for example, furniture).

Examples:

• anger
• courage
• progress
• furniture
• education
• weather
• warmth
• leisure
• precision

Example sentences:

I dove into the water. (How many waters did you dive into? The question doesn't make any sense; therefore water is noncountable.)

I saw the milk spill. (How many milks? Milk cannot be counted.)

I admired the foliage. (How many foliages? Foliage cannot be counted.)

Think of the batter from which a cake is made. Before you put the batter into the oven, it can't be divided into parts because it's a thick liquid. Once it has been baked, it becomes solid enough to be cut into pieces. Noncount nouns are like cake batter; count nouns are like pieces of cake
Note: Since the issue is complicated and almost no rule is absolute, there will be exceptions to the above definitions; however, we can show some general patterns. Bear in mind that what is countable in another language may not be countable in English, and vice versa.

Section 2: Uses of Count and Noncount Nouns

Pluralizing

The Rule
From the definitions of mass and count given above you may have already guessed the rule for pluralizing them:

• most count nouns pluralize with -s
• noncount nouns don't pluralize at all

This rule works for all of the nouns in the lists of examples in the first section. Check this rule for yourself before reading further.
An Exception to the Rule
For a number of nouns, the rule needs slight revision. Certain nouns in English belong to both classes: they have both a noncount and a count meaning. Normally the noncount meaning is abstract and general and the count meaning concrete and specific. Compare:
Count

• I've had some difficulties finding a job. (refers to a number of specific problems)
• The talks will take place in the Krannert building. (refers to a number of specific lectures)
• The city was filled with bright lights and harsh sounds. (refers to a number of specific lights and noises)

Noncount

• She succeeded in school with little difficulty. (refers to the general idea of school being difficult)
• I dislike idle talk. (refers to talking in general)
• Light travels faster than sound. (refers to the way light and sound behave in general)

Note: A special case of the use of noncount nouns in a count sense has to do with classification. Sometimes a usually noncount noun can be understood as one item separate and distinct from other items of the same category. The nouns that function in this way often denote foods and beverages: food(s), drink(s), wine(s), bread(s), coffee(s), fruit(s), and so on. Examples:

• There are several French wines to choose from. (= kinds of wine)
• I prefer Sumatran coffees to Colombian. (= kinds of coffee)
• We use a variety of different batters in our bakery. (= kinds of batter)

A recent entry into this class is homework, which at least among some students has the count plural homeworks in addition to its noncount use. (For example, "You're missing three of the homeworks from the first part of the course.") Because this usage is not firmly established and is likely to be considered nonstandard, you should check with your instructor before using it in writing.
A Revision of the Rule
These exceptions require that the rule for pluralizing be revised: count nouns and nouns used in a count sense pluralize; noncount nouns and nouns used in a noncount sense do not.
The two possibilities in each half of the rule require different choices. If you know that a particular noun must be either count or noncount and cannot be both, you need to decide only if it is possible to pluralize the noun. On the other hand, if you know that a particular noun may be used in either a count or noncount sense, then you need to decide whether it is appropriate to pluralize.
To summarize, we may put the rule in a chart, like this:

	Pluralizes with -s	Doesn't Pluralize
Count Noun	XX
Count Use	XX
Noncount Noun		XX
Noncount Use		XX

Articles

Nouns and Articles
Choosing which article to use (if any) with a noun is a complex matter because the range of choices depends on whether the noun in question is 1) count or noncount and 2) singular or plural. Both count nouns (whether singular or plural) and noncount nouns take articles.
Combinations of Nouns and Articles
The following chart shows which articles go with which kinds of nouns. Notice that this, that, these, and those have been included because, like the, they mark the noun that they modify as definite, which means that the noun refers 1) to a unique individual or 2) to some person, event, or object known to both the writer and reader from their general knowledge or from what has been previously mentioned in a piece of writing.

	a, an	the	this, that	these, those	no article
Count singular	XX	XX	XX
Count plural		XX		XX	XX
Noncount		XX	XX		XX

Examples:

Count Singular:
I ate an apple.
I rode the bus.
Does she live in this house? No, she lives in that house over there.

Count Plural:
I like to feed the birds.
Do you want these books? No, I want those books up there.
Cats are interesting pets.

Noncount:
The water is cold.
This milk is going sour.
Music helps me relax.

Quantity Terms

The following chart shows which quantity words go with which kinds of nouns. Note that quantity words can be used in combinations such as many more, many fewer, much more, and much less, any of which can be preceded by how to form questions or relative clauses. Negatives like not and no can also be applied to many of these terms.

	much, less, little, a little, very little	some, any, most, more, all, a lot of, no, none of the	many, both, several, few/fewer/fewest, a few, one of the, a couple of	each, every, any, one
Count singular				XX
Count plural		XX	XX
Noncount	XX	XX

Examples:

Count Singular:
I practice every day.
I'd like one donut, please.

Count Plural:
Can I have some chips?
She has a lot of books, and many are autographed.
I have fewer pencils than you.

Noncount:
Can I have some water?
She has a lot of strength, and much is due to her upbringing.
I have less courage than you.

2.9 Count and NonCount Nouns (with Articles and Adjectives)

Countable Nouns

Countable nouns refer to things that we can count. Such nouns can take either singular or plural form.
Concrete nouns may be countable.

There are a dozen flowers in the vase.
He ate an apple for a snack.

Collective nouns are countable.

She attended three classes today.
London is home to several orchestras.

Some proper nouns are countable.

There are many Greeks living in New York.
The Vanderbilts would throw lavish parties at their Newport summer mansion.

Uncountable Nouns

Uncountable nouns refer to things that we cannot count. Such nouns take only singular form.
Abstract nouns are uncountable.

The price of freedom is constant vigilance.
Her writing shows maturity and intelligence.

Some concrete nouns are uncountable (when understood in their undivided sense).

The price of oil has stabilized recently.
May I borrow some rice?

While uncountable nouns do not generally take a plural form, sometimes they may be pluralized when used in a countable sense. The difference between the uncountable and countable meanings of nouns that are used in either sense can be seen in the following chart:

Uncountable Sense	Countable Sense
Art is often called limitation of life.	I read a book aout the folkarts of Sweden.
Life is precious.	A cat has nine lives.
Religion has been a powerful force in history.	Many religions are practiced in the United States.
She has beautiful skin.	The hull of a kayak is made of animal skins.
Dr. Moulton is an expert in ancient Greek sculpture.	We have several sculptures in our home.
We use only recycled paper in our office.	Where are those important papers?

Using Articles with Countable and Uncountable Nouns

A countable noun always takes either the indefinite (a, an) or definite (the) article when it is singular. When plural, it takes the definite article if it refers to a definite, specific group and no article if it is used in a general sense.

The guest of honor arrived late.
You are welcome as a guest in our home.
The guests at your party yesterday made a lot of noise.
Guests are welcome here anytime.

Uncountable nouns never take the indefinite article (a or an), but they do take singular verbs. The is sometimes used with uncountable nouns in the same way it is used with plural countable nouns, that is, to refer to a specific object, group, or idea.

Information is a precious commodity in our computerized world.
The information in your files is correct.
Sugar has become more expensive recently.
Please pass me the sugar.

Categories of Uncountable Nouns

Abstract	Material	Generic	Non-Plurals with -s
advice help information knowledge trouble work enjoyment fun recreation relaxation	meat rice bread cake coffee ice cream water oil grass hair	fruit wildlife equipment machinery furniture mail luggage jewelry clothing money	mathematics economics physics civics ethics mumps measles news tennis (other games)

Quantity Adjectives with Countable and Uncountable Nouns

Some, Any
Both words modify either countable or uncountable nouns.

There are some cookies in the jar. (countable)
There is some water on the floor. (uncountable)
Did you eat any food? (uncountable)
Do you serve any vegetarian dishes? (countable)

Much, Many
Much modifies only uncountable nouns.

How much money will we need?
They ate so much cake that they started to feel sick.
Much effort will be required to solve this problem.

Many modifies only countable nouns.

How many children do you have?
They had so many books that they had to stack them in the hall.
Many Americans travel to Europe each year.

A lot of, Lots of
These words are informal substitutes for much and many.

Lots of effort will be required to solve this problem. (uncountable)
A lot of Americans travel to Europe each year. (countable)

Little, Quite a little, Few, Quite a few
Little and quite a littlemodify only uncountable nouns.

We had a little ice cream after dinner.
They offered little help for my problem. (meaning "only a small amount")
They offered quite a little help for my problem. (meaning "a large amount") (See quite a bit of, below.)

Few and quite a few modify only countable nouns.

A few doctors from the hospital play on the softball team.
Few restaurants in this town offer vegetarian dishes. (meaning "only a small number")
Quite a few restaurants in this town offer vegetarian dishes. (meaning "a large number")

A little bit of, Quite a bit of
These informal phrases usually precede uncountable nouns. Quite a bit of has the same meaning as quite a little and is used more commonly.

There's a little bit of pepper in the soup. (meaning "a small amount")
There's quite a bit of pepper in the soup. (meaning "a large amount")

Enough
This word modifies both countable and uncountable nouns.

I don't have enough potatoes to make the soup.
We have enough money to buy a car.

Plenty of
This term modifies both countable and uncountable nouns.

There are plenty of mountains in Switzerland.
She has plenty of money in the bank.

No
This word modifies both countable and uncountable nouns.

There were no squirrels in the park today.
We have no time left to finish the project.

2.10 Hyphen Use

Two words brought together as a compound may be written separately, written as one word, or connected by hyphens. For example, three modern dictionaries all have the same listings for the following compounds:

hair stylist
hairsplitter
hair-raiser

Another modern dictionary, however, lists hairstylist, not hair stylist. Compounding is obviously in a state of flux, and authorities do not always agree in all cases, but the uses of the hyphen offered here are generally agreed upon.

1. Use a hyphen to join two or more words serving as a single adjective before a noun:

a one-way street
chocolate-covered peanuts
well-known author

However, when compound modifiers come after a noun, they are not hyphenated:

The peanuts were chocolate covered.
The author was well known.

2. Use a hyphen with compound numbers:

forty-six
sixty-three
Our much-loved teacher was sixty-three years old.

3. Use a hyphen to avoid confusion or an awkward combination of letters:

re-sign a petition (vs. resign from a job)
semi-independent (but semiconscious)
shell-like (but childlike)

4. Use a hyphen with the prefixes ex- (meaning former), self-, all-; with the suffix -elect; between a prefix and a capitalized word; and with figures or letters:

ex-husband
self-assured
mid-September
all-inclusive
mayor-elect
anti-American
T-shirt
pre-Civil War
mid-1980s

5. Use a hyphen to divide words at the end of a line if necessary, and make the break only between syllables:

pref-er-ence
sell-ing
in-di-vid-u-al-ist

6. For line breaks, divide already hyphenated words only at the hyphen:

mass-
produced
self-
conscious

7. For line breaks in words ending in -ing, if a single final consonant in the root word is doubled before the suffix, hyphenate between the consonants; otherwise, hyphenate at the suffix itself:

plan-ning
run-ning
driv-ing
call-ing

8. Never put the first or last letter of a word at the end or beginning of a line, and don't put two-letter suffixes at the beginning of a new line:

lovely (Do not separate to leave ly beginning a new line.)
eval-u-ate (Separate only on either side of the u; do not leave the initial e- at the end of a line.)

Legal Information

Copyright ©1995-2008 by The Writing Lab & The OWL at Purdue and Purdue University. All rights reserved. This material may not be published, reproduced, broadcast, rewritten, or redistributed without permission. Use of this site constitutes acceptance of our terms and conditions of fair use.
The Writing Lab & OWL at Purdue University care about accessiblity and content quality. Contact Dana Driscoll to share your comments and concerns. The OWL at Purdue now conforms to W3C.org-validated XHTML 1.0 Strict and CSS 2.0 standards. Additionally, the site passes the Cynthia Says test for ADA Section 508 compliance. We also recommend updating your Web browser to the very latest version available (the OWL at Purdue recommends the free, open-source Mozilla Firefox). Please report any technical problems you encounter.

2.11   Improving Sentence Clarity

 

There are many strategies for improving the clarity of your sentences and your papers.

Go from old to new information

Introduce your readers to the "big picture" first by giving them information they already know. Then they can link what's familiar to the new information you give them. As that new information becomes familiar, it too becomes old information that can link to newer information.
The following example sentence is clear and understandable because it uses old information to lead to new information:

Every semester after final exams are over, I'm faced with the problem of what to do with books of lecture notes (new information). They (old) might be useful some day, but they just keep piling up on my bookcase (new). Someday, it (old) will collapse under the weight of information I might never need.

Here is a sentence that is not as clear. It moves from new information to old information:

Lately, most movies I've seen have been merely second-rate entertainment, but occasionally there are some with worthwhile themes. The rapid disappearance of the Indian culture (new) is the topic of a recent movie (old) I saw.

Did you find the second sentence hard to read or understand? If so, it could be because the old information comes late in the sentence after the new information. A clearer version that moves from old information to new information might look like this:

Lately, most movies I've seen have been merely second-rate entertainment, but occasionally there are some with worthwhile themes. One recent movie (old) I saw was about the rapid disappearance of the Indian culture. (new)

Be careful about placement of subordinate clauses

Avoid interrupting the main clause with a subordinate clause if the interruption will cause confusion:
clear (subordinate clause at the end):

Industrial spying is increasing rapidly because of the growing use of computers to store and process corporate information.

clear (subordinate clause at the beginning):

Because of the growing use of computers to store and process corporate information, industrial spying is increasing rapidly.

not as clear (subordinate clause embedded in the middle):

Industrial spying,because of the growing use of computers to store and process corporate information, is increasing rapidly.

Use active voice

Sentences in active voice are usually easier to understand than those in passive voice because active-voice constructions indicate clearly the performer of the action expressed in the verb. In addition, changing from passive voice to active often results in a more concise sentence. So use active voice unless you have good reason to use the passive. For example, the passive is useful when you don't want to call attention to the doer; when the doer is obvious, unimportant, or unknown; or when passive voice is the conventional style among your readers.
clear (active):

The committee decided to postpone the vote.

not as clear (passive):

A decision was reached to postpone the vote.

Use parallel constructions

When you have a series of words, phrases, or clauses, put them in parallel form (similar grammatical construction) so that the reader can identify the linking relationship more easily and clearly.
clear (parallel):

In Florida, where the threat of hurricanes is an annual event, we learned that it is important (1) to become aware of the warning signs, (2) to know what precautions to take, and (3) to decide when to seek shelter.

not as clear (not parallel):

In Florida, where the threat of hurricanes is an annual event, we learned that it is important (1) to become aware of the warning signs. (2) There are precautions to take, and (3) deciding when to take shelter is important.

In the second sentence, notice how the string of "things to be aware of in Florida" does not create a parallel structure. Also, notice how much more difficult it is for a reader to follow the meaning of the second sentence compared to the first one.

Avoid noun strings

Try not to string nouns together one after the other because a series of nouns is difficult to understand. One way to revise a string of nouns is to change one noun to a verb.
unclear (string of nouns):

This report explains our investment growth stimulation projects.

clearer:

This report explains our projects to stimulate growth in investments.

Avoid overusing noun forms of verbs

Use verbs when possible rather than noun forms known as "nominalizations."
unclear (use of nominalization):

The implementation of the plan was successful.

clearer:

The plan was implemented successfully.

Avoid multiple negatives

Use affirmative forms rather than several negatives because multiple negatives are difficult to understand.
unclear (multiple negatives, passive):

Less attention is paid to commercials that lack human interest stories than to other kinds of commercials.

clearer:

People pay more attention to commercials with human interest stories than to other kinds of commercials.

Choose action verbs over forms of be

When possible, avoid using forms of be as the main verbs in your sentences and clauses. This problem tends to accompany nominalization (see above). Instead of using a be verb, focus on the actions you wish to express, and choose the appropriate verbs. In the following example, two ideas are expressed: 1) that there is a difference between television and newspaper news reporting, and 2) the nature of that difference. The revised version expresses these two main ideas in the two main verbs.
Unclear (overuse of be verbs):

One difference between television news reporting and the coverage provided by newspapers is the time factor between the actual happening of an event and the time it takes to be reported. The problem is that instantaneous coverage is physically impossible for newspapers.

Clearer:

Television news reporting differs from that of newspapers in that television, unlike newspapers, can provide instantaneous coverage of events as they happen.

Avoid unclear pronoun references

Be sure that the pronouns you use refer clearly to a noun in the current or previous sentence. If the pronoun refers to a noun that has been implied but not stated, you can clarify the reference by explicitly using that noun.
Unclear (unclear pronoun reference):

With the spread of globalized capitalism, American universities increasingly follow a corporate fiscal model, tightening budgets and hiring temporary contract employees as teachers. This has prompted faculty and adjunct instructors at many schools to join unions as a way of protecting job security and benefits.

Clearer:

With the spread of globalized capitalism, American universities increasingly follow a corporate fiscal model, tightening budgets and hiring temporary contract employees as teachers. This trend has prompted faculty and adjunct instructors at many schools to join unions as a way of protecting job security and benefits.

Unclear (unclear pronoun reference):

Larissa worked in a national forest last summer, which may be her career choice.

Clearer:

Larissa worked in a national forest last summer; forest management may be her career choice.

 

2.12 Sentence Fragments

Fragments are incomplete sentences. Usually, fragments are pieces of sentences that have become disconnected from the main clause. One of the easiest ways to correct them is to remove the period between the fragment and the main clause. Other kinds of punctuation may be needed for the newly combined sentence.
Below are some examples with the fragments shown in red. Punctuation and/or words added to make corrections are highlighted in blue. Notice that the fragment is frequently a dependent clause or long phrase that follows the main clause.

• Fragment:Purdue offers many majors in engineering. Such as electrical, chemical, and industrial engineering.
  Possible Revision: Purdue offers many majors in engineering, such as electrical, chemical, and industrial engineering.
• Fragment: Coach Dietz exemplified this behavior by walking off the field in the middle of a game. Leaving her team at a time when we needed her.
  Possible Revision: Coach Dietz exemplified this behavior by walking off the field in the middle of a game, leaving her team at a time when we needed her.
• Fragment: I need to find a new roommate. Because the one I have now isn't working out too well.
  Possible Revision: I need to find a new roommate because the one I have now isn't working out too well.
• Fragment: The current city policy on housing is incomplete as it stands. Which is why we believe the proposed amendments should be passed.
  Possible Revision: Because the current city policy on housing is incomplete as it stands, we believe the proposed ammendments should be passed.

You may have noticed that newspaper and magazine journalists often use a dependent clause as a separate sentence when it follows clearly from the preceding main clause, as in the last example above. This is a conventional journalistic practice, often used for emphasis. For academic writing and other more formal writing situations, however, you should avoid such journalistic fragment sentences.
Some fragments are not clearly pieces of sentences that have been left unattached to the main clause; they are written as main clauses but lack a subject or main verb.

No main verb

• Fragment: A story with deep thoughts and emotions.
  Possible Revisions:
• Direct object: She told a story with deep thoughts and emotions.
• Appositive: Gilman's "The Yellow Wallpaper," a story with deep thoughts and emotions, has impressed critics for decades.
• Fragment: Toys of all kinds thrown everywhere.
  Possible Revisions:
• Complete verb: Toys of all kinds were thrown everywhere.
• Direct object: They found toys of all kinds thrown everywhere.
• Fragment: A record of accomplishment beginning when you were first hired.
  Possible Revisions:
• Direct object: I've noticed a record of accomplishment beginning when you were first hired
• Main verb: A record of accomplishment began when you were first hired.

No Subject

• Fragment: With the ultimate effect of all advertising is to sell the product.
  Possible Revisions:
• Remove preposition: The ultimate effect of all advertising is to sell the product.
• Fragment: By paying too much attention to polls can make a political leader unwilling to propose innovative policies.
  Possible Revisions:
• Remove preposition: Paying too much attention to polls can make a political leader unwilling to propose innovative policies.
• Fragment: For doing freelance work for a competitor got Phil fired.
  Possible Revisions:
• Remove preposition: Doing freelance work for a competitor got Phil fired.
• Rearrange: Phil got fired for doing freelance work for a competitor.

These last three examples of fragments with no subjects are also known as mixed constructions, that is, sentences constructed out of mixed parts. They start one way (often with a long prepositional phrase) but end with a regular predicate. Usually the object of the preposition (often a gerund, as in the last two examples) is intended as the subject of the sentence, so removing the preposition at the beginning is usually the easiest way to edit such errors.

Legal Information

Copyright ©1995-2008 by The Writing Lab & The OWL at Purdue and Purdue University. All rights reserved. This material may not be published, reproduced, broadcast, rewritten, or redistributed without permission. Use of this site constitutes acceptance of our terms and conditions of fair use.
The Writing Lab & OWL at Purdue University care about accessiblity and content quality. Contact Dana Driscoll to share your comments and concerns. The OWL at Purdue now conforms to W3C.org-validated XHTML 1.0 Strict and CSS 2.0 standards. Additionally, the site passes the Cynthia Says test for ADA Section 508 compliance. We also recommend updating your Web browser to the very latest version available (the OWL at Purdue recommends the free, open-source Mozilla Firefox). Please report any technical problems you encounter.

Three Grammar Points

Subject-verb agreement        Correct word class        Verb tense consistency Some grammar points cause particular problems for non-English speaking student writers. This page will identify three of those difficult points: subject/verb agreement (the rule that singular subjects go with singular verbs and plural subjects go with plural verbs), correct word class (using nouns, adjectives and adverbs in their proper place), and verb tense consistency (remembering to keep to the present or past tenses). The purpose of this page is not to teach you the grammar, but to remind you that these are important points to remember and look out for when you are editing your assignments. Back to top 1. Subject-verb agreement A singular subject must take a singular verb, and a plural subject must take a plural verb. The only verb form that is affected by this rule is the third person simple present; but since this verb form is the one you will use most in your studies, it is essential that you master the subject-verb agreement rule as quickly as possible. In these examples, the subject is in bold typeface and the verb is in italics: The Prime Minister is meeting the President of the United States at the White House. (singular subject: ‘Prime Minister’; singular verb ‘is meeting’) The Prime Minister and the President are meeting at the White House (plural subject: ‘PM and President’; plural verb ‘are meeting’) Glass breaks easily.  Glasses break easily. The computer is a useful tool.  Computers are useful tools. The lion has eaten the zebra.  The lions have eaten the zebra. Back to top 2. Correct word class (noun? verb? adjective? adverb?) Words must be used in their correct form according to what they are doing in the sentence. A word being used as a subject or object must be in noun form; a word being used to describe a noun must be in adjective form; a word being used to qualify a verb must be in adverb form; and so on. Examples (these sentences have been specially contrived to show the different forms: they aren’t well written in other respects!): a.     These managers differ1; one difference2 between these different3 managers is that they manage differently4. 1 ‘differ’ is the verb in this part of the sentence 2 ‘difference’ is being used as a subject, so it is noun form 3 ‘different’ describes the managers, so it is in adjective form 4 ‘differently’ tells us how the managers manage, so it is in adverb form b.     This is a productive company; it produces many products productively and has increased productivity. c.     In the national interest, the nation will nationalise nationally.